The Issues Of Children On The Internet

The Issues Of Children On The Internet Abstract: This paper focuses on current studies on children and the Internet in historical context noting the main themes in various research papers, books and media research by summarizing both the pros and cons surrounding childrens use of computer and the internet, and on which factors society should focus when making important decisions about the role of the Internet technology in childrens lives. Is access to the Internet for children important or not? What is the purpose of access and who need the access? How parents can assure that access to the Internet for their children leads to positive and innovative learning experience at school and at home? As the Internet becomes must in our daily lives, it is necessary to understand how the growth and the development of our child is dependent on the use of the Internet and the computer technology. Parents should determine what their children should learn from the Internet and take actions which are necessary to steer them away from bad influenc es of the same. Introduction: Due to childrens passion for computers and internet, huge funds are being spent to give them access to computers and Internet in school, at home and in dorms. Now a days near about each and every school is equipped with computer systems and large number of children have access to the Internet at their home. But is the Internet and computer technology improving childrens lives? This paper examines not only how children are affected by this emerging era of computers and the Internet but also explores how the use of Internet is affecting childrens development by all means and different ways to overcome problems from these critical situations. Overview: People usually agree that, for children to enter socially and politically in this new competing world, they must get a certain level of comfort and knowledge using computers. National polls also indicate the necessity for providing access to computers and Internet for children to enable them learn computer skills and improve their education.[1] In most of the surveys parents and children believe computers and the Internet as an information highway, despite worried about exposure to inappropriate content like commercial, sexual or violent contents.[2] Some Parents also believes that the Internet can help children in their homework. They consider that children without Internet access have a lot disadvantages compared to those with access to internet. Thus, children with access to computers and the Internet at home are growing. The spread of the Internet access has been described as nine time faster than that of radio and four times faster than that of personal computers and also three times faster than that of television.[2] Also the Internet connections are rapidly increased from 15% to 52% over the five year periods from 1996 to 2000.[2] In addition to this, in USA Congress has made a national priority to give access to the Internet at school for all their nations children. Stating that the use of such technology can help students to develop and maintain a technologically literate citizen.[3] For this Congress has established many acts like Educate America act, The Improving Americas school act etc. As a result, the percentage of schools with computer with Internet increased from 35% to 95%.[3] On the other hand, children spend most of their time in computer activities at home. Such excessive and unmonitored use of computers combined with use of other screen technologies like television can place children at harmful risk on their social development. Too much time in front of computer can deviate their mind from playing sports and other social activities which are beneficial and essential to child development. In addition, also there are chances for children to get exposed to some violent and sexual inappropriate contents beyond both at school and at home internet.[11] Currently, excessive use of computers and the Internet among children is not typical. National survey indicate that children ages from 2 to 17 spent on an average about 34 minutes per day on computers at home.[4] Usage is high, however especially older children have reported spending at-least 4 hours a day on internet.[4] Children who spend high amount of time on computers and on the Internet most likely get apart from activities required for healthy development and increasing risk of obesity and could expose them to harmful impact on their eyes. Although, the number of studies suggests that the risk of excessive computer use can be significant.[4] To reduce increased risk of obesity and several other harmful effects because of extensive use of internet, the American Academy of Pediatrics suggested parents about limiting childrens time spending on the Internet should not exceed one to two hours per day.[5] In addition to this time extent, they also suggested that various activities children perform on computers and on the Internet can also affect their psychological and intellectual will-being.[5] Children can use computer and the Internet for a wide range of purposes. For example, they can choose to get engage in activities across a broad range of possibilities like making projects, creating cartoons, learning different basic computer tools such as painting, power-point etc. Games: Video games introduces children to the computer technology and the internet world. Computer games have long been the most common activity for children. Online games make children adapt and be comfortable with diverse concepts of computing. This is mainly important for girls who typically not interested in high technology as much as boys. In concern with online games, boys spent much more time than girls on computers. however, now a days the computer applications has widened, as a result girls also spent time on computers as often as boys do. Children surf the Internet mostly for music and for pictures of their favorite movie stars, and also for use of email to exchange messages among their friend. However, the effect of computer and Internet usage, vary significantly by activity children perform and quality of content the child handles. For example, the experiences of children playing offensive games on computer are different from children playing educational and puzzle games online and the experiences of children using emails to exchange messages with family and friends are quite different from children using emails to chat with strangers in MUDs and chat rooms. These games vary diversely in concern with type of content and behavioral effects. Some games have been shown to have high educational value. For example SimCity. By playing this game children can develop their problem solving skills and visualization skills . But, online games like Doom 95 and counter-strike, expose children to extreme violence, possibly exposing them to aggressive behavior. However, studies suggest that the use of computers for playing games has least significant impact on childrens behavior, on their friendships and on family relationships.[12] It can also enhance certain visual or graphical intelligence skills like to visualize 3D images and to track multiple images of different colors and shapes simultaneously. Such skills can be important building blocks, for children in computer literacy and can be very useful for children to succeed in their life. In addition to the negative impact of online games, studies have shown that the more the time children spend on playing computer games and online games, the poorer is their performance in school exams.[12] It also show that many children who play online games routinely, skip their homework to play games and many student admitted that their online game playing habits are often responsible for their academic degradation. Children can pick up bad language and behavior from other people while playing online and it can make children vulnerable to online threats. According to new study published in February 2012, children spending excessive time on playing online games may show impulsive behavior and have attention problem.[13] According to this study attention problems were defined as difficulty engaging in to reach a goal. Education: Next to games, most frequently found activity at home computer and on the Internet by children is school assignments. The use of computers at home is assumed to have a positive effect on childrens learning. An evidence shows that use of home computer has slightly better academic performance but such studies failed to control other factors.[6] A study shows that children who participated in the computer program to get knowledge in mathematics and computer knowledge were better able to score higher in school tests as compared to non-participants.[6] The dark side of this is many of the educational sites on the Internet are being obscure by the commercial sites. In that, many sites are tied to some interesting television shows and attractive toy companies. By using an unique feature of internet, companies are able to integrate their advertisement on such web pages with their brand names or brand logos encouraging children to become their consumer at very early age. According to an industry report, teenagers spent approximately $161 million online in recent years.[7] In addition to this, much more information which is not intended for the children is readily available on the Internet such as bomb making procedures, and sexually explicit images and videos. It give rise to exposure to inappropriate contents and child abuse. Although, studies shows that children who viewed more cartoons and other animation type films improved their visualization skills and academic performance. [7] The extended use of the Internet to get linked with virtual world of multi user domains as MUDs, chat rooms and multiplayer games tends children to get in loneliness and depression. In this virtual world, children assume multiple identities and starts interacting with strangers. So, no one cannot predict whether a child is really communicating with a real person or with a simulator. Sometimes children are curious about sexuality and sexually explicit materials. Children may seek to establish new relationships outside their family as they are curious about use of Internet access to actively seek out such materials. So many of the sex-offenders target children and exploits these characteristics and children need. Some children also may get attracted to online offenders , although not technically, may also be dangerous.[10] Apart from this, children also make online payments because of some attractive ads to get access to those contents. However, because of such activities childrens and ultimately their parents personal and financial details may get hacked by some third party pirate and children are unaware of this.[10] Suggestions: An executive director of a non-profit group named GetNetWise which aimed at improving online safety says that parents should talk with their children about online privacy.[9] Such discussion can address many aspects of online privacy from the use of social networking sites and the disclosure of personal information.[9] Parents should remind their child not to provide their names or other personal details online without asking them.[11] Parents also should alert their child to common tricks like flashing pop-up ads that may be dangerous to their computer and on clicking them these pop-ups may installs spywares and malicious software into childrens computer to steal their personal information. To help parents and adults protect their children from such violent content, many steps have been initiated like helping children be safe and savvy, efforts to protect children from inappropriate materials on Internet that is Childrens Online Privacy Protection Act in 1998 passed by congress, efforts to promote computer literacy etc. Many companies have created several filtering and blocking tools for parents to keep their children away from online violent and inappropriate contents. However, the study found that half of the children using Internet at home have no parental restrictions on amount of time spent online and type of content they access.[3] So it is highly recommended for parents and teachers working with children that they should limit the time for children to access Internet and also supervise for the contents their children exposes to. Schools, Universities and community organizations should also provide a guideline to parents, teachers and also to children to strengthen themselves in their critical understanding and always teach children in making right choice about their computer use. Teacher should encompasses a more active role for children that allows themselves to use computers to create good applications, to invent new technologies and to design innovative models and not to just receive information passively from computer screen.[10] To reduce the potential threats of excess use of computers, as a next step, guidelines for how long, children of different ages should use Internet each day would be helpful. State and local education agencies should bear some age appropriate guidelines for childrens computer literacy. Such guidelines should be provided to all elementary and secondary teachers and also incorporated into technology centers.[8] Conclusion: Thus, computer technology is a vast and rapidly growing field. The government should ensure that schools should be well equipped with latest hardware, updated high-quality software, and well-trained mentors, resulting children to learn the required skills to live, survive and work efficiently in the twenty-first century. Although, the task is already accomplished to a certain level, appropriate monitoring and controls must be put to practice so that there is a very little abuse of the Internet technology among children and it helps in overall development of not only of their lives but also the future of the nation.

Use Of Paralanguage And Kinesics In Everyday Life Essay -- essays rese

Use of Paralanguage and Kinesics in Everyday Life The use of kinesics and paralanguage in everyday life is the most prominent use of persuasion we use subconsciously. They are used subconsciously because you may not know what they mean. Which can cause cultural tension if you do something that may seem harmless to you but may be a great insult to another culture. Paralanguage has many forms such as whistling which can be used by many people as a means of entertaining by whistling a song or even in American culture used to hound women on the streets because they appear to be attractive. These two uses of persuasion I will discuss about in my paper. I will discuss the history of both and also how they are used today in everyday life. To start of with I will define kinesics. Kinesics is articulation of the body, or movement resulting from muscular and skeletal shift. This includes all actions, physical or physiological, automatic reflexes, posture, facial expressions, gestures, and other body movements. Body language, body idiom, gesture language, organ language and kinesic acts are just some terms used to depict kinesics. In ways that body language works in nonverbal acts, body language parallels paralanguage. Kinesic acts may substitute for language, accompany it, or modify it. Kinesic acts may be lexical or informative and directive in nature, or they may be emotive or empathic movements. Posture is one of the components of kinesics. Posture is broken down into three basic positions: bent knees, lying down, and standing. Artists and mimes have always been aware of the range of communication possible through body stance. But there are some cultural differences in posture positions. Most people use the bent knee position to eat, but while the Romans used to eat lying down. Prince Peter of Greece and Denmark described the sleeping posture of the Tibetans before World War II. He said that the local men slept outside at night huddled around the fire, hunched over on their knees with their faces resting in their palms. In 1932, William James did a study of expression of bodily posture. He recognized the relationship of facial expression, gesture, and posture. He declared that studying each one independently was justified for the purpose of analysis, but they should be re... ...ell, and variations of it as expressed by the scream, shout, roar, howl, bellow, squeal, holler, shriek, or screech, are effective non-speech communications, difficult to describe technically, and almost impossible to duplicate the effect of in other kinds of communication media. The Confederate Yell, during the Civil War, was a ulant yell that was the signal for the Confederate troops to charge at the enemies. The use of paralanguage in today's society is very prominent. We use paralanguage with children when we tell them to be quiet by saying "shush." If we see something disgusting we can make a gagging sound which shows disapproval. We also use kinesics today a lot too. We use the "O.K." sign to signal that everything is fine. We even have body language for vulgar words that many people today seem to use a lot. The study of these two topics can help a lot in understanding what people are really saying in today's society. Without the understanding of kinesics or paralanguage we would not be able to help bridge the gap between certain cultures or even each other. We need these two non- -verbal communication techniques to survive.

China Inflation Essay

In recent years, China has met price of commodities rising quickly, inflation has affecting the overall economy. In this article, I will analyses last five years status of China inflation, explain the cause and effects, then base on the cause and effects, giving some solution to deal with the inflation. According to the definition of economics, inflation refers to the number of currency in circulation more than economic operation needed, and then cause currency devaluation and a persistently rising price level. In order to precisely explain inflation in China, I selected last five years inflation rate to analyze the overall condition about China inflation. Inflation rate, The following chart shows last five years inflation rate and trend of change. * In these chart, we can clearly see that, after 2008 years high inflation rate, inflation rate has fallen during the 5 years. But the size is not big. Since 2009, the inflation rate was going a new round of the rising trend. On the surface, china inflation is not so high, but some of the industry’s price rising greatly, such as agricultural products and real estate industry. And during last thirty years, overall commodity price in china has kept rising quickly. So China inflation is still a serious problem. The cause of China inflation Demand-pull inflation The inflation because of aggregate demand excessive increase is called demand-pull inflation. In order to deal with the financial crisis in 2008, to speed up the pace of economic growth in China, the central government carried out 4 trillion RMB investments and a series of stimulate measures to expand domestic demand. In China, the fixed assets investment increased 30 %( compared to 2008 )ï ¼Å'the amount of fixed assets investment is 22.46 trillion RMB in 2009( 65.9% in annual GDP ) and 27.81 trillion RMB in 2010( 69.8% in annual GDP ). Depends on the huge number of investment and loans, China economic recovered faster in the world, on the other hand some area assumes the extension expansion, break the balance of economic structure, has formed a serious pressure of inflation. Unhealthy investment is other problem in demand-pull inflation. Cost-push inflation 1. Employee wages rising Wage growth makes the production cost growth, on given price levels, the profit level of manufacturer will decrease, manufacturers willing and are able to supply the number of products will decrease, so that the aggregate supply curve shift to left, is caused the price level increase. In 2008 and 2009, the average worker real wages indexes increase from the previous year were 11% and 13%. Over the same period, the GDP growth rates were 9.6% and 9.2% respectively. Worker average wage index rising more than the GDP growth rate of the same period. Wage growth has led the production costs and the total price level increase. 2. Inflation triggered by the rising prices of raw materials In China, after the financial crisis of 2008, the huge investment in fixed assets need a great number of raw material such as steel, wood and cement to support it. The phenomenon of demand greater than supply causes the rising price of wood, cement and steel. That is the beginning of comprehensive price rising. Imported inflation In May 2011, the middle rate between RMB and us dollar break 6.5. China external dependence is relatively large, the decrease in us dollar will transfer the influence to China. Because persistently rising price of international bulk commodity, the biggest importer and trade processing section—china, has suffered huge pressure in cost growth. On the other hand, china is a biggest importer in oil, mineral, food. So when the price of these goods increase significantly, at the same time, through the imported channel affect the general price level in China, leading the imported inflation. In recent years, because of the good investment prospect and appreciation expectations of RMB, also result in a number of unknown money inflows to China, the hot money inflow to China will cause short-term speculation behavior in capital market and real estate market. In china, the regulation system in this area is not sufficient enough, supervision is relatively difficult, and also cause imported inflation in this reason. The effect of inflation in China (1) The influence on economic growth. 1.1 The error of resources guide. When inflation happened, because the destruct to the currency force the price system disorders, upset the market mechanism, to interfere with the market signals and make the transfer of market signal distortion, cause the allocation of resources disorders, reduce economic efficiency and economic instability. 1.2 Effect on labor force. Inflation caused part of the false demand, and disturbing prices and wages system, give the labor many wrong information, they were attracted in some temporary jobs. And once inflation over, or when it is no longer increased enough, these jobs will disappear, and will cause the new unemployment. 1.3 Affects China export product competitiveness. At present China employee’s wages in the big scale of rising, this year in the coastal areas, appear a shortage of 6 million migrant workers, and in coastal areas, average wage rise 15%-20% to rural migrant workers, and this already transfer from a manufacturing economy to a service industry quickly, and the present China industry majority is labor intensive, and also because the status of â€Å"world factory†, low labor costs is a advantage, low wages low price in accordance with China’s interests upgrade transformation haven’t succeeded, it’s to early into high wage upscale stage, the product export will not competitive, other Asian countries will replace the situation of china in market. Inflation will make higher labor costs; increase the difficulty to Chinese products export. 1.4 Brings huge uncertainty to investment and consumption. In inflation, a kind of commodity price increase is not the real increase due to market demand rising, and just because the speculative impulse or panic of consumers, producers about prices rise further caused. Because not every one of the producers can handle the overall market information, so this kind of speculation from the uncertainty and panic is likely to promote the further investment, at same time consumption has become more chaos. (2) The influence of the development of society Inflation influence on the society mainly displays in the national income redistribution, because it changed the income and wealth possession ratio of original members of the society. 2.1 Low-income families are the biggest victims of inflation. On the one hand, because food prices is the mainstay of this round of inflation, and the lower income families has higher Engel’s coefficient, the damage of food prices rising is deep. On the other hand, because low-income families’ consumption in the larger proportion in income holds, marginal propensity is large, is given priority to the necessities of life, this part of the consumer goods often lack of the price elasticity. So, low-income can’t through maintain and increase assets’ value to against inflation. 2.2 This round of inflation come with asset price (such as stock and property) expanded rapidly, and expand the income distribution gap, increase the unfair feeling to low-income people, at the same time, stimulates the enthusiasm to inhabitants of all kinds of assets investment, this investment enthusiasm lead asset prices to rise further, make capital market systemic risk are gathered together. 3.3 Inflation impact social member’s wealth possession ratio. In inflation, physical assets value added much higher than the rate of inflation, so holder can benefit. Conversely, inevitable damaged. If the holders hold deposit money, they suffered loss because of rising prices and decrease in currencies; if the holders hold securities, and then depend on rate between rising prices and stock price changes. Liabilities members of society reduce the actual debt burden. The government and the enterprise are in the net debt position, is beneficiaries in inflation. And residents in a net creditor position, inflation are victim in inflation. How to manage the inflation in China (1) Build a correct understanding of the essence of inflation; attach importance to the management of currency First of all, should control the issuance of the currency amount from the source, keep balance between money supply and economic development needs. For the currency issue institutions, regulating the procedures, shows the clear responsibility, avoid excessive issued. Second, the government should adopt agile monetary policy. According to the actual economic operation, make use monetary policy efficiently, and try to improve the purchasing power of the money, ease monetary inflation pressure. At the right time, raise the deposit reserve rate and raising interest rates, issue Treasury bonds, open market operations to control money supply amount. The purpose is keep the balance of aggregate supply and aggregate demand basically, maintain price stability and full employment. Since January 2010, China has continued to adjust deposit reserve rate in 12 times, percentage of large financial institutions increased to 21.5% from 15.50%, small and medium sized financial institutions has been increased to 18% from 13.50%. This activity shrunk the liquidity to a certain extent. (2) Establish corresponding early warning mechanism Direct response of inflation is the commodities prices continue to rise. The effect of the monetary policy exist certain hysteresis. If began implement monetary policy after the price rise sharply, it need a period of time to produce the result. That may ease economic fluctuations, but that may produce bad influence to the volatility of the economy too. As far as possible to avoid a control too much, or couldn’t control the situation. So, to the macroeconomic regulation, need to establish the corresponding early warning mechanism, it also requires money management authorities to improve the management level, avoid it before obvious inflation, they should take corresponding measures to avoid economic fluctuations. (3) Adjust foreign exchange policy and keep balance of international payments At present our country executes is mandatory settlement and sale of foreign exchange policy is restrictions. Because of the foreign exchange income of export enterprises must be sold to foreign exchange bank. If foreign exchange is constant, in a floating exchange rate, foreign exchange bank of sell excess foreign currency can lead to exchange rate fall. But China want to keep the stable of exchange rate, forced the central bank to buy a large foreign exchange, in order to maintain the stability of RMB exchange rate. This will form empty demand increase for foreign exchange, increase the investment of the monetary, the base currency produce the multiplier effect, which eventually led to the money supply increased. We can gradually allow Banks to foreign exchange transactions, let the foreign exchange market shunt RMB financing, establish foreign exchange reserve fund, carry out foreign exchange transaction. We can choose some management regulations of the financial management, sound enterprise, allowing him to open a foreign exchange account, to keep foreign exchange funds. keep the balance of international payments; change the trade surplus of excessive situation. By simplifying the import formalities and reduce tariffs, etc way, encourage imports, especially the raw material of the block of domestic scarce import, forming materials reserve, timely bring prices down. (1828 words) Reference Bregger J.E (2009) China Inflation rate’s chart. â€Å"National Bureau of Statistics of China†. From: http://www.tradingeconomics.com/china/inflation-cpi 6 JULY IMF, China; International Monetary Fund China inflation rate’s chart (2012) from: http://www.statista.com/statistics/167115/inflation-in-china/ 6 July 6, 2012 Historic inflation China – CPI inflation (2012) from : http://www.inflation.eu/inflation-rates/china/historic-inflation/cpi-inflation-china.aspx 6 JULY Jain T .R (2006) Microeconomics and Basic Mathematics. New Delhi: VK Publication, Jan 2001 Wang X.Q (2002) Population Dividend Effects and china’s economic growth. March 6 , 2009

I Am Applying For The Mayo Clinic - 1622 Words

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I aim to change that throughout my life by partnering with organizations like the United States Navy or the Doctors Without Borders, and the attainment of a MD/Ph.D. de gree is an essential part of it. Clinical Research Internship Study Program (CRISP) at the Mayo Clinic Florida strengthened my idea that research is an integral part of clinical medicine. After the CRISP, I decided a MD/Ph.D. suits my future goals better than an MD or Ph.D. because it will better equip me with essential tools, such as the ability to practice and develop medicine, needed to provide the best patient care possible. Spending many weeks on Cerner Millennium power chart sortingShow MoreRelatedMy Lifelong Dream Of Becoming A Nurse866 Words   |  4 Pagesseek. I have desire, determination, and a commitment to excellence. I am a wife, mother to four children (15, 7, 6, and 5), and nursing student pursuing my Registered Nursing Degree. In the 1990 s, I attended IVCC for courses related to business. 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Lrk2 Case Study - 1616 Words

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Marriage in William Shakespeares The Taming of the Shrew...

Marriage in William Shakespeares The Taming of the Shrew At the time Shakespeare wrote The Taming of the Shrew the idealistics and attitudes to not only marriage, but also women were of a whole different nature. A woman would have had to be married to someone with the same social status. The man would indeed have to be rich and offer a safe and secure future. Marriage was based around social standings, money, trade and a way to make an alliance. At the time queen Elizabeth was on the thrown and society saw that unless a man owned†¦show more content†¦Despite all this the Elizabethan woman was intelligent with her life she adapted to the way she was anticipated to behave and let the male figure think he was boss. They often appeared one-way and acted another such as Bianca does in Taming of the Shrew. Today however women have made a stand they are no longer second to anyone but instead an equal with just as much authority right and power as any other man. A few typical traditions however still remain but these are slowly dieing out as women go out to work and dont always stay home to raise a family. Taming of the Shrew is set in Elizabethan times in Italy with traditional views on the womans place in society. The play is fairly controversial, as people believe that it should not be shown as it is out of touch with society. People believe it should not be studied as its basis is extremely sexist. However I feet hat it is relevant as the play is a written piece of history. Indeed it is a piece of fiction but it reflects views of the Elizabethan times and therefore is especially important to society today so that we can move forward for if we forget the past then we dont learn from it. Kates character is a fine example of this, the way she behaved because she stood up for herself and didnt wish to be ridiculed in the streets men didnt find her attractiveShow MoreRelatedMarriage and Relationships in William Shakespeares The Taming of the Shrew2278 Words   |  10 PagesMarriage and Relationships in William Shakespeares The Taming of the Shrew Getting married in modern times is not something which is viewed as necessary. There are many couples that are together, but do not want to marry, because they do not feel they have to. Couples that do, can have a marriage almost anywhere they choose. Couples can marry in houses, shopping centres and even petrol stations. 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Bianca has a suitor who would like to marry her, Lucentio, but the onlyRead MoreSexism in The Taming of the Shrew by William Shakespeare Essay example1104 Words   |  5 PagesSexism in The Taming of the Shrew by William Shakespeare The Taming Of The Shrew by William Shakespeare is an introduction in the everpresent battle of women to be loving and caring wives, while at the same time holding on to our independence. Its plot is derived from the popular war of the sexes theme in which males and females are pitted against one another for dominance in marriage. The play begins with an induction in which a drunkard, Christopher Sly, is fooled into believing he is a kingRead More Taming of the Shrew: Male Domination Essay1046 Words   |  5 PagesTaming of the Shrew: Male Domination The Taming of the Shrew, by William Shakespeare, deals with marriage. The ideas explored are primarily shown through the characters of Petruchio and Katharina. We are introduced to the trials and tribulations which present themselves in their everyday lives. The characters bring up a traditional concept of male domination. Through the play we see the need for domination through Petruchio, and the methods he uses to dominate. While these ideas of male dominationRead MoreGender Roles During Elizabethan Society1099 Words   |  5 Pages†; Petit, â€Å"A Look at Male Gender Roles in Shakespeare’s Renaissance.).. The men could vote and all actors on stage were men. In general, men had every advantage in that time period (Ram, Pham, Sok, Hamsafar, and Wilhemsen, â€Å"Gender Roles in Elizabethan Society.†; Petit, â€Å"A Look at Male Gender Roles in Shakespeare’s Renaissance.). During the Elizabethan age, marriages were generally viewed as a business relationship than anything else (Folger, 5). Marriages were arranged only to increase the wealth

Measure of Welfare free essay sample

Individual living conditions include non material aspects as health, life expectancy, education and environment. Happiness, as the ultimate goal, does not change much over time as it depends on family, friends, work satisfaction, not much on income. Hence, GDP (a frequently varying and objective measure based on raw formulas and numbers) can definitely not be an accurate measure of a nation welfare (or happiness, by far more subjective and non-changing in nature. ) As discussed in the previous paragraph, there are several layers we need to go through from GDP in order to reach welfare. Each layer will inevitably impose encompassing new considerations in finding the ‘right’ measure for welfare, should the latter be initially based on GDP. To illustrate, the figure below shows a relatively low economic well being in spite of a high GDP per capita for USA, while it depicts a relatively high economic well being in spite of a low GDP per capita for France. In both countries overall happiness and life satisfaction are quite steady over time. 2. From GDP to Welfare Our analysis of the way from GDP to welfare is based on the following illustration. Yet, depreciation does not contribute to welfare in any way, and the replacement of old capital only gets the economy back to the â€Å"starting† position. Such capital consumption (ranging from 10% in UK and more than 20% in Japan) prevents (at least partially) any rise of GDP from benefiting consumers and only replaces physical capital. Similarly, expenditure on crime prevention and security adds significantly to GDP but only restores a safe environment. Medical expenditure as a result of air and noise pollution also adds to GDP as do diet classes, antidepressants and a sizeable list of other items . e. hence comes the notion of the Net Domestic Product as the result of subtracting capital consumption from GDP. Second, GDP measures income produced in a country but not how much of it is received by people in that country. Implicitly speaking, some income may go to foreigners. This is particularly the case in Ireland, which transfers a non negligible 15% of primary income to the rest of the world. On the other side, other countries (Japan and Germany for instance) are net recipients of income from abroad leading to the rise in income of residents outpacing the rise in GDP. Here comes to notion of the Net National Product as the result of subtracting net income receipts from abroad from net domestic product. Third, GDP â€Å"objectively† counts monetary transactions (including estimates for those in the shadow economy) and very often misses many other activities that people â€Å"subjectively† value like caring for children or elderly at home, spending leisure time spent relaxing or with family and friends. GDP does not include the value of clean air and water i. e. ; therefore, any useful measure of well-being would try to capture these items, which are not considered at all by GDP. However, if we take our reasoning the extreme line, this would imply that basic food and clothing also should not be included. This again highlights some of the arbitrariness of the different measures. 2. 2 Some Initiatives towards Welfare Measurement In 1970s a measure of Economic Welfare (MEW) was proposed by James Tobin and William Nordhaus. The principle was to add to GNP the value of household services and leisure, to subtract the cost of capital consumption and â€Å"bring-back† costs such as pollution, and to excludes police services to combat crime and similar. Many later studies used components and weights of different measures, but they were all based on researchers’ own subjective judgment. A very comprehensive and thorough Index of Economic Well-Being comes from the Canadian Centre for the Study of Living Standards. It starts from the flow of private and government consumption (excluding household work). The stock of physical and human capital owned by residents tries to measure the stock of productive resources that can be passed on to the next generation. Inequality is captured through the Gini coefficient and the poverty intensity. Finally, the security component aggregates diverse items such as divorce rates and employment rates (with a negative sign). The overall Index of Economic Well-Being is a weighted average of the four components. The preliminary 2004 results shows that economic well being ranking differ significantly from the ranking for GDP per capita, favoring countries with high income equality and low insecurity. Several countries started publishing or developing national economic well-being measures. So far, there is no international standard for calculating them. The measures differ significantly across countries and may reflect the values and priorities of the researchers who construct them. Over the coming decades we are likely to see more standardization in this area. 4 MBAXIV A – MA 1407 – Business Economics in a Global Market GDP Welfare – The Moroccan Example Still, consumption, wealth, equality and security only capture part of a human’s well-being. Many other elements are relevant as well. Perhaps, the best-known, but rather narrow measure of human living conditions is the United Nations’ annual Human Development Index (HDI): a combination of the levels of life expectancy, education and GDP to measure human development (not necessarily welfare); which makes it a valued contribution but still narrow in scope because of its high correlation with GDP. A more comprehensive measure of human living conditions is the Weighted Index of Social Progress (WISP) calculated by Richard Estes at the University of Pennsylvania and going back to 1970. This index tries to capture many dimensions of wellbeing, covering income, education, health, role of women, environment, social peace, diversity and welfare. In UK, the â€Å"new economics foundation† publishes a Happy Planet Index (HPI): a combination of data on life expectancy, surveys on satisfaction and consumption of natural resources (in an attempt to measure how happy people live without damaging the planet). With such strong focus on the environment, this index favors countries near the equator. Anecdotal evidence suggests that HPI may be a good guide for holiday destinations! Another measure in the UK is the Measure of Domestic Progress (MDP). From consumer expenditure, social costs (inequality, accidents, crime, family breakdown etc. , environmental costs and the loss of natural resources are subtracted. This indicator peaked in the mid-1970s, declined until the mid1980s and has not yet regained any considerable improvement due to rising social and environmental costs. Because the Labor government’s focus on improving the overall quality of life in the UK, this measure has some influence on policy priorities, and reversibly, policy influences measured wellbeing. 2. 3 Happiness and Life Satisfaction The well-being indicators still cannot tell how happy individuals are. Measuring happiness requires a different approach mainly based on surveys. According to the survey of spring 2006, 66% of Danes said they were very satisfied with the life they lead. Only 17% of Germans and just 4% of the Portuguese felt the same way. Over the past 15 years, the average level of life satisfaction has not changed much in spite of the large increase in per capita income. Football events and achievements greatly contributed to satisfaction bumps (france in 1998, Portugal in 2000). Satisfaction of life is influenced by factors other than income, and it is very difficult to boost satisfaction on a sustainable basis mainly because people get used to igher income, consumption and circumstances. For example, by the hedonic treadmill, driving a new car for the first time may make one very happy, but only for a short time. Naturally, humans always aim higher for better living conditions. The satisfaction treadmill can make one feel that it would have been better to have a house in a better or safer neighborhood rather that the just recently completed new house. To make thing even worse, an individual’s satisfaction tends to be influenced by how well others are doing. Driving a big car may make one happy if she is the only person with such a car, but satisfaction with that same car quickly diminishes if friends and neighbors drive similar cars. Also, if one buys a big car, this may depress the happiness of neighbors, so aggregate happiness may not rise. According to Lyubomirsky et al. (2005) a part of happiness appears to be genetically determined (around 50%), another part determined by happiness-relevant activities (40%) and the remainder by circumstances (income, climate, environment, stable democracy etc. ).